Child Labor

 

 

Definition: Child labor is any paid employment of children younger than 18 years (USA def, 15 years by ILO def).

Prevalence:                         

 

Child labor is highly prevalent worldwide, both in developed and developing countries.

 

The International Labor Organization estimates there are 246 million working children aged between five and 17.

 

179 million are estimated to work in the worst forms of child labor -- one in every eight of the world's five to 17 years olds

 

111 million children under 15 are in hazardous work and should be "immediately withdrawn from this work

 

In Egypt, around 1.4 million aged between 6 and 14 years work, forming 2.7% of all work force aged 6-64 years. Males are 5 times more than females.

The following  are some statistical information  regarding child labor in Egypt. The study have been carried on a representative sample of the population ( about 5000 child ) in 1998.

 

Percentage of Children in the expanded population working only, by sex and age (Egypt Labour Market Survey (ELMS 98)   1998)

Some of the circumstances faced by working children:

• Full time work at a very early age
• Dangerous workplaces
• Excessive working hours
• Subjection to psychological, verbal, physical and sexual abuse
• Obliged to work by circumstances or individuals
• Limited or no pay
• Work and life on the streets in bad conditions
• Inability to escape from the poverty cycle -- no access to education

 

Hazards of Illegal Work of children:

 

In developing countries, such as Egypt, most of employment of children is illegal and informal as the law prohibits work of children below 12 years. Certain occupations are also prohibited for children less than 15 years (e.g. furnaces, fertilizer industry, dyestuff), while others are prohibited before the age of 17 years (e.g. mines and quarries, foundries, glass industry, Doko paint, ionizing radiation).

 

So most of children employed are subjected to the additional hazards of illegal employment such as:

 

          - Unsanitary and unsafe working conditions.             

         - Unavailability of legal rights.

         - Unavailability of health care.

         - Physical and emotional abuse.

         - Lack of enforcement of laws of occupational health and safety

         - Unavailability of personal protective devices.

                                                                                                        

 

Causes of child labor:  

 

- Poverty: is the greatest single force which creates the flow of children into the workplace.

 

- Education: the failure of the education system in terms of cost, availability and quality led many poor parents to view child labor as the preferred option.

- Family size and socio-economic factors.

 

- Child labor is much more cheaper for employers, and children are considered easier to discipline and control than adults especially in the informal sectors

Main industries employing children:

 

In rural areas they are mainly employed in agricultural work, while in urban areas they are mainly employed in small workshops As automotive and shoe repair, carpet weaving, textile and leather industry, foundries, as well as in service industries such as vendors and garbage collectors.  

 

Hazards of child labor:

Children are exposed to all of the dangers that are faced by adults when they are placed in the same situation. However work hazards that affect adults affect children even more strongly. Children differ biologically from adults in their anatomical, psychological and physiological characteristics.  These differences make them more susceptible to occupational hazards. The health effects can be more devastating to them resulting in permanent disabilities.

 

1- Developmental risks:

 Interference with school performance. Child labor also interferes with play, which is very important for development throughout childhood. Relaxation and freedom from fatigue are important for physical and mental health of children. That is in addition to that some occupational toxins interfere with the development of children such as lead and mercury.

 

2- Health risks:

 Children are at much more increased risk than adults for the development of health risks for the following reasons:

 

- Anatomically, children have a small body size and larg body surface area which leads to increased dose of toxins in milligrams per kilogram body weight.

 

- Physiologically, children have more rapid respiratory rates which lead to increased dose of inhaled toxins

 

- Children have a slower rate of detoxification, making them more liable to the toxic effects of chemicals.

 

- Children are inexperienced in the handling of toxins

 

 - Personal protective equipments are designed for use by adults only.

 

- The long life expectancy of children compared with adults may increase the risk of exposure to some toxins.

 

- Exposure levels considered safe for adults are unsafe for children e.g. lead, mercury.

 

- Children suffer from fatigue and exertion much more quickly than adults when exposed to long hours of hard monotonous work.

 

- Behavioral factors; e.g. children exhibit significantly more hand-to-

mouth activities than adults do, putting them at increased risk of exposure to different toxicants at work.

 

- Children have a lower heat tolerance than adults and are therefore more subject to heat stress.

 

- Children undertaking heavy work, carrying heavy loads and maintaining awkward body positions for a long time can develop deformations of the spinal column. Their bodies suffer the effects of fatigue faster than adults due to excessive energy expenditure

 

- Most suffer malnutrition which lowers their resistance to disease.

- Children are more vulnerable to accidents because they have neither the awareness of the dangers nor knowledge of the precautions to be taken at work.

 

- Child domestic workers may face violence and sexual abuse.

It is of course inevitable that children growing in such an environment will be permanently damaged both physically and psychologically.

 

Thus, it becomes evident that child labor has serious consequences that stay with the individual and society for far longer than the years of childhood. Young workers not only face dangerous working conditions but also long term physical, intellectual and emotional stress, as well as an adulthood of unemployment and illiteracy.

 

Prevention and Control

International laws:

Article 32 of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989):
"State Parties recognize the right of the child to be protected from economic exploitation and from performing any work that is likely to be hazardous or to interfere with the child's education or to be harmful to the child's health or physical, mental, spiritual, moral or social development.”

Convention 182 of the International Labour Organization (1999):
The main aim of Convention 182 is to eliminate the worst forms of child labour. It stresses that immediate action is needed to tackle the worst exploitation of children, and that measures taken by the authorities should start as soon as the government is able following ratification.

 

Health Care:

   In fact, one of the tasks of occupational health services is to exclude children who are too young to work. However- facing the reality-primary health care services, utilizing community health workers and any facilities a workers' health service can make available, should be able to provide the basic services that are needed to protect child workers.

 Activities should include:

1. History taking; including the place of work, character of work, working hours, use of protective equipments, education, days off, relation with employer.

 

2. Physical examination:

·        General: Weight, height, general appearance, mental development.

·        Specific:  - Mouth, teeth, eyes. Skin,

                             - Chest, abdomen, - Locomotor system. CNS

 

3. Investigations:  CBC,   Chest x-ray, Audiogram, 

 

4. Health Education ; mainly to convince the child and his parent about the hazards of child laborer and to stop working and going back to education. If necessary advices about  use of protective equipment, resting intervals, avoidance of exposure.

Health hazards of different industries employing children:

 

Hand-knotted carpets

 

    Lots of children in the Middle-East are exploited in the hand-woven carpet industry, mostly girls aged 10-14 years.

 

Hazards:

 

Mechanical hazards: are rare in hand-woven carpets since they are hand-made with no power machinery, but if the looms are not kept in a good state of maintenance, the wooden lever may break and strike the weaver in falling.

 

Physical Hazards:

          Inadequate lighting: Some family concerns may have no electric light available and only oil lamps are used for work after dark. This may cause eyestrain especially as the work requires close attention.

 

Chemical Hazards:

          Dyestuffs used contain hazardous chemicals such as solvents which may cause dermatitis.

 

Biological Hazards: there is danger of anthrax from raw wool.

 

Ergonomic Problems:

Skeletal deformation: The squatting position that the weaver must occupy and the need for him/her to lean forward to reach the place into which he knots the yarn causes very serious trouble in spine and bones. If worker is employed at a very young age, his legs become deformed (genu valgum) and he may get crippling arthritis. Deformation of the pelvis is especially very serious for women and may lead to Caesarian section in pregnancy. Scoliosis and lordosis may also occur.

Hand and finger disorders: constant tying of knots and threading of weft yarn leads to swollen finger joints, arthritis and neuralgia which leads to permanent deformation of fingers.

 

Psychological hazards: very fine work requiring high degree of skill and constant attention may lead to nervous illness and hand trembling

 

Prevention:

Environmental:

-         Very good lighting of the designing room.

-         Wool or hair suspicious of carrying anthrax should be properly disinfected by supervision of governmental authorities before being delivered to the workshop or factory.

-         Provision of comfortable seats.

-         Cleanliness and good ventilation.

 

Medical:

          Pre-employment and annual medical examination:

-         Back and joint examination: for deformities, early arthritis.

-         Eye examination for refractory disorders, eyestrain.

-         Skin examination. The clinical picture of dermatitis may vary from slight erythema at the point of contact to large bullae with necrosis and ulceration. Use of PPE is mandatory, while entire removal of exposure may be required in allergic dermatitis.

 

Health Education for proper postures and use of  PPE. (Personal protective devices)

 

Personal protective devices especially in wool washing and dyeing processes, rubber gloves and water-proof aprons should be provided.

 

 

Foundries

 

Founding consists of pouring molten metal into a mould which is made to the outside shape of a pattern of the article required and contains, in some cases, a core which will determine the dimensions of any internal cavity.

Foundry work comprises making the pattern, assembling the mould, melting and refining the metal, pouring the metal into the mould and finally removing all adherent sand and superfluous metal from the finished casting (knock-out).

 

 

Hazards and their prevention:

 

Mechanical hazards: Risk of injury from slippages of heavy objects, flying fragments, crane accidents, striking and falling against objects.

 

Physical Hazards:

          Noise: from charging process.

          The knock-out process is also a noisy process.

 

          Heat: There is danger of burns from hot metal.

Working near the furnaces may cause heat disorders, especially in an inadequately ventilated room and without use of protective clothing and inadequate water replacement by drinking.

Where white hot metal is visible, there can be danger to the workers' eyes due to emission of infra-red and ultra-violet rays, which can cause cataract.

 

Chemical Hazards:

          There is risk of exposure to molten metal fumes during the melting and pouring of the metal

Exposure to thermal decomposition products: chemical binders from the molds and cores are evaporated or decomposed. Exposure to volatile and organic compounds may occur, which cause eye, mucous membrane and respiratory tract irritation. And because they are irritants or sensitizers, dermatitis may occur.

          Carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning is a risk as the cupola generates large quantities of CO.

 

Dust:

          There may be exposure to dust (e.g. silica, talc) especially during the knock-out of moulds.

 

 

Ergonomic Problems:

Are rare, but may occur from fixed static postures and rapid repetitive motions.

 

Psychological hazards: Long hours of work and shift work as well as hazardous may pose significant psychological stress.

 

Prevention:

Environmental:

-         Crane cabs should well-protected and operators properly instructed.

-         Good house-keeping is essential especially where molten metal is a hazard.

-         Ventilation: Good general and exhaust ventilation should be employed where there is a risk of exposure to dust or fumes.

-         Engineering controls: e.g. metal-on-metal impact can be reduced by fitting rubber noise-dampening liners to storage skips and bins.

 

Medical:

          Pre-employment and periodic medical examination:

§         skin due to risk of dermatitis.

§         Slit lamp examination due to the risk of cataract.

§         Audiometric examination due to exposure to noise.

§         Chest X-ray and pulmonary function tests due to exposure to dust.

§         Liver and kidney monitoring due to exposure to solvents.

 

Health Education

–       Safe working practices and avoidance of accidents and injuries..

–       Importance of PPE.

- Near cupolas, where CO is a hazard, breathing apparatus and resuscitation equipment should be kept and maintained in readiness and operators should be instructed in its use. In emergency work, working in pairs or under observation should be developed and enforced.

 

PPE:  PPE are very important in tapping cupolas. Goggles must be of such standard that they resist both high velocity impact and molten metal.

Safety helmets should be provided.

Raw materials handlers: should wear hand leathers and protective boots and aprons

Hearing and eye protectors should be used.

 

 

Street workers and vendors

 

A lot of street vendors are children. They are at risk of road accidents (hit by cars) especially as they jump between cars to sell their goods. They are also at risk of hazardous outdoor work, such as exposure to automobile exhausts, air pollution, and hazardous weather.

 

Air pollution and automobile exhaust may cause symptoms of respiratory irritation, exacerbation of asthma symptoms, decreased lung function. It may also predispose to respiratory infections and lung cancer.

 

Street workers are also exposed to extremes of weather. Exposure to heat may cause heat disorders, such as heat stroke, heat cramps and heat exhaustion.

 

Exposure to sun may also predispose to skin cancer.

 

Prevention:

 

Medical Monitoring:

          Pre-placement and periodic medical examination:

Chest examination for the diagnosis of chronic bronchitis and bronchial asthma.

Pulmonary function tests.

Chest X ray.

Skin examination for diagnosis of heat disorders such as miliara rubra and heat rash.

 

PPE: wearing of hats and light white clothes.

          Use of sunscreen for protection of skin.

 

Health education to be properly hydrated in hot weather, wearing appropriate clothes, and knowledge of symptoms and prodromal symptoms of heat disorders.

Leather Goods Industry

 

Leather is the name given to the skin of animals when tanned and prepared for different uses in industry. Risks are due to machinery, electricity, uses of knifes and hammers. The use of solvents may cause particular disorders such as dermatitis, allergic reactions and eczema. Dyes may also present a hazard if they contain toxic substances.

 

Prevention

 

Environmental Measures:

 

-         Enclosure of hazardous processes.

-         Safety guards for machinery, electricity.

-         Good housekeeping.

Medical monitoring program that include:

1-occupational and exposure history taking

 

2-medical history taking with special emphasize on complaint associated with urinary tract and hepatic systems

 

3-complete physical examination with special concern on renal and hepatic symptoms

 

4-liver function test and urine analysis including microscopic examination of sediment.

 

5- Skin examination.

 

6- Excluding persons with eczema, liver and kidney trouble from work.

 

Health education of the workers:

1- To know about the hazards of handling dyes without precautions and to encourage them to follow the safety instructions and use PPE.

 

2- To follow the safety instructions like wearing protective cloths when dealing with dyes, then placing the protective cloths in the suitable marked and closed container for either disposal or laundering, also washing the exposed area with soap and water upon leaving work place

 

3- To report any symptom or sign of health problem to the physician

Mechanics and care repair workshops

Health hazards:

 

Mechanical hazards:

Dealing with sharp tools and instruments can lead to wounds or cuts specially to the hands or the forearms

 

Carrying heavy objects or doing difficult manipulations can lead to musculoskeletal disorders like muscle sprain, ligaments tear, painful joints, vertebral column disorders or even bones fracture

 

Physical Hazards:

Exposure to heat may occur if working in badly ventilated hot, humid conditions.

Exposure to noise may occur especially during repair of body parts.

Exposure to ultra-violet rays may occur in welding which may cause cataract.

 

Chemical Hazards:

 

Exposure to benzene and other solvents:

Exposure can occur through inhalation, ingestion or skin contact which results in the following symptoms:

 

1-drowsiness, dizziness, rapid heart rate, tremor, confusion in case of inhalation of large amount of benzene

 

2- vomiting, irritation of the stomach, sleepiness, death in case of benzene ingestion.

 

3-skin contact can lead to redness and sores

 

4-eye contact can lead to irritation of eyes and corneal damage.

 

5-bone marrow depression

 

6- acute myeloid leukemia from prolonged exposure to benzene.

 

Exposure to toxic gases and fumes may occur during welding, which may cause respiratory tract irritation and even serious pulmonary edema if highly exposed to highly toxic gases such as nitrogen dioxide.

Ergonomic hazards: Using fixed static postures during welding and repair of cars may cause musculo-skeletal problems.

 

Psycho-social hazards due to violence and child abuse:

Children who work in workshops are usually exposed to violation from their foremen or boss in the form of beating or insulting this lead to:

-Physical injuries

-Psychological trauma

 

Method of prevention:

 

Environmental Measures:

- Good sanitary conditions of workshops.  - Good housekeeping. - Good ventilation.

 

Medical monitoring program including:

1-occupational and exposure history taking

2-medical history taking with special emphasize on complaints caused

by exposure to benzene and solvents

3-Complete physical examination.

Skin examination as exposure to solvents can cause dermatitis. Clinical examination to joints and vertebral column

 

4-Treatment of any wounds or cuts to prevent their disinfecting

 

5- Lab. Investigation:

-Complete blood picture to detect B.M depression or myeloid leukemia

-S-phenyl-n-acetylcystein (PHAC) in urine, to measure benzene exposure

 

Health education of workers:

 

1-To know the hazards they are exposed to.

2- Safe working practices.

3-To know how to use protective cloths & to know their importance

4-To report any symptom or sign of health problem to the physician

5-To encourage workers to wear protective gloves when dealing with sharp objects.

6-To take correct position during work and avoid carrying extra weights

7- Wearing of protective equipment such as gloves when exposed to solvents or sharp tools, goggles when exposed to harmful rays and other protective equipment accordingly.